develop entrepot

(1415-1975)

   Portugal was the first Western European state to establish an early modern overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean and perhaps the last colonial power to decolonize. A vast subject of complexity that is full of myth as well as debatable theories, the history of the Portuguese overseas empire involves the story of more than one empire, the question of imperial motives, the nature of Portuguese rule, and the results and consequences of empire, including the impact on subject peoples as well as on the mother country and its society, Here, only the briefest account of a few such issues can be attempted.

   There were various empires or phases of empire after the capture of the Moroccan city of Ceuta in 1415. There were at least three Portuguese empires in history: the First empire (1415-1580), the Second empire (1580-1640 and 1640-1822), and the Third empire (1822-1975).

   With regard to the second empire, the so-called Phillipine period (1580-1640), when Portugal's empire was under Spanish domination, could almost be counted as a separate era. During that period, Portugal lost important parts of its Asian holdings to England and also sections of its colonies of Brazil, Angola, and West Africa to Holland's conquests. These various empires could be characterized by the geography of where Lisbon invested its greatest efforts and resources to develop territories and ward off enemies.

   The first empire (1415-1580) had two phases. First came the African coastal phase (1415-97), when the Portuguese sought a foothold in various Moroccan cities but then explored the African coast from Morocco to past the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa. While colonization and sugar farming were pursued in the Atlantic islands, as well as in the islands in the Gulf of Guinea like São Tomé and Príncipe, for the most part the Portuguese strategy was to avoid commitments to defending or peopling lands on the African continent. Rather, Lisbon sought a seaborne trade empire, in which the Portuguese could profit from exploiting trade and resources (such as gold) along the coasts and continue exploring southward to seek a sea route to Portuguese India. The second phase of the first empire (1498-1580) began with the discovery of the sea route to Asia, thanks to Vasco da Gama's first voyage in 1497-99, and the capture of strong points, ports, and trading posts in order to enforce a trade monopoly between Asia and Europe. This Asian phase produced the greatest revenues of empire Portugal had garnered, yet ended when Spain conquered Portugal and commanded her empire as of 1580.

   Portugal's second overseas empire began with Spanish domination and ran to 1822, when Brazil won her independence from Portugal. This phase was characterized largely by Brazilian dominance of imperial commitment, wealth in minerals and other raw materials from Brazil, and the loss of a significant portion of her African and Asian coastal empire to Holland and Great Britain. A sketch of Portugal's imperial losses either to native rebellions or to imperial rivals like Britain and Holland follows:

   • Morocco (North Africa) (sample only)

   Arzila—Taken in 1471; evacuated in 1550s; lost to Spain in 1580, which returned city to a sultan.

   Ceuta—Taken in 1415; lost to Spain in 1640 (loss confirmed in 1668 treaty with Spain).

   • Tangiers—Taken in 15th century; handed over to England in 1661 as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry to King Charles II.

   • West Africa

   • Fort/Castle of São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (in what is now Ghana)—Taken in 1480s; lost to Holland in 1630s.

   • Middle East

   Socotra-isle—Conquered in 1507; fort abandoned in 1511; used as water resupply stop for India fleet.

   Muscat—Conquered in 1501; lost to Persians in 1650.

   Ormuz—Taken, 1505-15 under Albuquerque; lost to England, which gave it to Persia in the 17th century.

   Aden (entry to Red Sea) — Unsuccessfully attacked by Portugal (1513-30); taken by Turks in 1538.

   • India

   • Ceylon (Sri Lanka)—Taken by 1516; lost to Dutch after 1600.

   • Bombay—Taken in 16th century; given to England in 1661 treaty as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry for Charles II.

   • East Indies

   • Moluccas—Taken by 1520; possession confirmed in 1529 Saragossa treaty with Spain; lost to Dutch after 1600; only East Timor remaining.

   After the restoration of Portuguese independence from Spain in 1640, Portugal proceeded to revive and strengthen the Anglo- Portuguese Alliance, with international aid to fight off further Spanish threats to Portugal and drive the Dutch invaders out of Brazil and Angola. While Portugal lost its foothold in West Africa at Mina to the Dutch, dominion in Angola was consolidated. The most vital part of the imperial economy was a triangular trade: slaves from West Africa and from the coasts of Congo and Angola were shipped to plantations in Brazil; raw materials (sugar, tobacco, gold, diamonds, dyes) were sent to Lisbon; Lisbon shipped Brazil colonists and hardware. Part of Portugal's War of Restoration against Spain (1640-68) and its reclaiming of Brazil and Angola from Dutch intrusions was financed by the New Christians (Jews converted to Christianity after the 1496 Manueline order of expulsion of Jews) who lived in Portugal, Holland and other low countries, France, and Brazil. If the first empire was mainly an African coastal and Asian empire, the second empire was primarily a Brazilian empire.

   Portugal's third overseas empire began upon the traumatic independence of Brazil, the keystone of the Lusitanian enterprise, in 1822. The loss of Brazil greatly weakened Portugal both as a European power and as an imperial state, for the scattered remainder of largely coastal, poor, and uncolonized territories that stretched from the bulge of West Africa to East Timor in the East Indies and Macau in south China were more of a financial liability than an asset. Only two small territories balanced their budgets occasionally or made profits: the cocoa islands of São Tomé and Príncipe in the Gulf of Guinea and tiny Macau, which lost much of its advantage as an entrepot between the West and the East when the British annexed neighboring Hong Kong in 1842. The others were largely burdens on the treasury. The African colonies were strapped by a chronic economic problem: at a time when the slave trade and then slavery were being abolished under pressures from Britain and other Western powers, the economies of Guinea- Bissau, São Tomé/Príncipe, Angola, and Mozambique were totally dependent on revenues from the slave trade and slavery. During the course of the 19th century, Lisbon began a program to reform colonial administration in a newly rejuvenated African empire, where most of the imperial efforts were expended, by means of replacing the slave trade and slavery, with legitimate economic activities.

   Portugal participated in its own early version of the "Scramble" for Africa's interior during 1850-69, but discovered that the costs of imperial expansion were too high to allow effective occupation of the hinterlands. After 1875, Portugal participated in the international "Scramble for Africa" and consolidated its holdings in west and southern Africa, despite the failure of the contra-costa (to the opposite coast) plan, which sought to link up the interiors of Angola and Mozambique with a corridor in central Africa. Portugal's expansion into what is now Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe (eastern section) in 1885-90 was thwarted by its oldest ally, Britain, under pressure from interest groups in South Africa, Scotland, and England. All things considered, Portugal's colonizing resources and energies were overwhelmed by the African empire it possessed after the frontier-marking treaties of 1891-1906. Lisbon could barely administer the massive area of five African colonies, whose total area comprised about 8 percent of the area of the colossal continent. The African territories alone were many times the size of tiny Portugal and, as of 1914, Portugal was the third colonial power in terms of size of area possessed in the world.

   The politics of Portugal's empire were deceptive. Lisbon remained obsessed with the fear that rival colonial powers, especially Germany and Britain, would undermine and then dismantle her African empire. This fear endured well into World War II. In developing and keeping her potentially rich African territories (especially mineral-rich Angola and strategically located Mozambique), however, the race against time was with herself and her subject peoples. Two major problems, both chronic, prevented Portugal from effective colonization (i.e., settling) and development of her African empire: the economic weakness and underdevelopment of the mother country and the fact that the bulk of Portuguese emigration after 1822 went to Brazil, Venezuela, the United States, and France, not to the colonies. These factors made it difficult to consolidate imperial control until it was too late; that is, until local African nationalist movements had organized and taken the field in insurgency wars that began in three of the colonies during the years 1961-64.

   Portugal's belated effort to revitalize control and to develop, in the truest sense of the word, Angola and Mozambique after 1961 had to be set against contemporary events in Europe, Africa, and Asia. While Portugal held on to a backward empire, other European countries like Britain, France, and Belgium were rapidly decolonizing their empires. Portugal's failure or unwillingness to divert the large streams of emigrants to her empire after 1850 remained a constant factor in this question. Prophetic were the words of the 19th-century economist Joaquim Oliveira Martins, who wrote in 1880 that Brazil was a better colony for Portugal than Africa and that the best colony of all would have been Portugal itself. As of the day of the Revolution of 25 April 1974, which sparked the final process of decolonization of the remainder of Portugal's third overseas empire, the results of the colonization program could be seen to be modest compared to the numbers of Portuguese emigrants outside the empire. Moreover, within a year, of some 600,000 Portuguese residing permanently in Angola and Mozambique, all but a few thousand had fled to South Africa or returned to Portugal.

   In 1974 and 1975, most of the Portuguese empire was decolonized or, in the case of East Timor, invaded and annexed by a foreign power before it could consolidate its independence. Only historic Macau, scheduled for transfer to the People's Republic of China in 1999, remained nominally under Portuguese control as a kind of footnote to imperial history. If Portugal now lacked a conventional overseas empire and was occupied with the challenges of integration in the European Union (EU), Lisbon retained another sort of informal dependency that was a new kind of empire: the empire of her scattered overseas Portuguese communities from North America to South America. Their numbers were at least six times greater than that of the last settlers of the third empire.

    See also Luso-Tropicalism; Rose-colored map; Ultimatum, English.

1. n ком. торгівля; галузь; 2. професія, ремесло, спеціальність; a торговельний; торговий

1. форма обміну товарів, послуг, валюти (currency¹) тощо на основі купівлі-продажу; 2. рід занять, трудової діяльності

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advantageous trade вигідна торгівля; allied trade суміжна спеціальність; ancillary trade допоміжна галузь; autumn trade торгівля товарами осіннього сезону; balanced trade нетто-баланс • врівноважений торговельний баланс; barter trade бартерна торгівля; bilateral trade двостороння торгівля; border trade прикордонна торгівля; brisk trade жвава торгівля; building trade будівельна галузь; bulk cargo trade перевезення масових вантажів; buyback trade компенсаційна торгівля • торгівля за зворотну купівлю; carrying trade транспортна галузь; cash trade торгівля за готівку; coasting trade каботажна торгівля • каботаж • каботажне судноплавство; coastwise trade каботажна торгівля • каботаж • каботажне судноплавство; colonial trade колоніальна торгівля; commision trade комісійна торгівля; commodity trade торгівля товарами; competitive trade конкурентоспроможна торгівля • конкурентоспроможні підприємства • конкурентоспроможні підприємства в даній галузі торгівлі; continental trade континентальна торгівля; contraband trade контрабандна торгівля; cooperative trade кооперативна торгівля; cross trade взаємні брокерські операції • заборонені законом взаємні брокерські операції; counter trade зустрічна торгівля; day trade денна торгівля; depressed trade застійна галузь; direct transit trade пряма транзитна торгівля; distribution trade оптова торгівля • сфера розподілу; domestic trade внутрішня торгівля; entrepot trade транзитна торгівля; export trade експортна торгівля; external trade зовнішня торгівля; fair trade торгівля на основі взаємної вигоди; fall trade торгівля товарами осіннього сезону; favoured trade галузь, яка перебуває у сприятливих умовах; foreign trade зовнішня торгівля; free trade вільна торгівля; freight trade вантажні перевезення; frontier trade прикордонна торгівля; general trade загальна торгівля; graphic trade поліграфічна галузь; handicraft trade ремісниче виробництво; hire-purchase trade продаж на виплат; home trade внутрішня торгівля; illicit trade незаконна торгівля • контрабандна торгівля; import trade імпортна торгівля; indirect transit trade непряма транзитна торгівля; inland trade внутрішня торгівля; installment trade купівля-продаж на виплат; interior trade внутрішня торгівля; intermediary trade посередницька торгівля • торговельне посередництво; internal trade внутрішня торгівля; international trade міжнародна торгівля; interregional trade міжрегіональна торгівля; interstate trade торгівля між штатами; invisible trade «невидима» торгівля • торгівля послугами; key trades провідні професії; lawful trade законна діяльність; license trade ліцензійна торгівля; luxury trade торгівля предметами розкоші; mail-order trade посилкова торгівля; maritime trade морська торгівля; mercantile trade торгівля товарами; money trade торгівля грішми; multilateral trade багатостороння торгівля; mutual trade взаємна торгівля; national trade національна торгівля; overseas trade зовнішня торгівля; preferential trade пільгова торгівля; private trade приватна торгівля; produce trade торгівля продуктами; profitable trade вигідна торгівля • прибуткова торгівля; rag trade торгівля одягом; reciprocal trade торгівля на основі взаємності; regional trade регіональна торгівля; retail trade роздрібна торгівля; retail delivery trade роздрібна доставка; seasonal trade сезонна торгівля; service trade галузь обслуговування • торгівля послугами; skilled trade професія, яка вимагає кваліфікації; small-scale trades галузі, в яких поширені дрібні підприємства; special trade спеціальна торгівля; spring trade торгівля товарами весняного сезону; stagnant trade млява торгівля; stock trade торгівля акціями; substantial trade значний обсяг торгівлі; successful trade успішна торгівля; tally trade торгівля на виплат; tourist trade туризм; two-way trade двостороння торгівля; visible trade «видима» торгівля (експорт та імпорт товарів); wholesale trade оптова торгівля; world trade світова торгівля

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by way of trade шляхом торгівлі; to be in trade бути торговцем • мати крамницю; to depress trade послаблювати/послабити торгівлю; to develop trade розвивати/розвинути торгівлю; to encourage trade заохочувати/заохотити торгівлю; to expand trade розширювати/розширити торгівлю; to further trade сприяти/посприяти розвиткові торгівлі; to hamper trade перешкоджати/перешкодити розвиткові торгівлі; to hinder trade перешкоджати/перешкодити розвиткові торгівлі; to increase trade розвивати/розвинути торгівлю; to monopolize trade монополізувати торгівлю; to open trade починати/почати торгівлю; to promote trade сприяти/посприяти розвиткові торгівлі • заохочувати/заохотити розвиток торгівлі; to pursue a trade займатися/зайнятися промислом • займатися/зайнятися ремеслом; to restrain trade обмежувати/обмежити торгівлю; to restrict trade обмежувати/обмежити торгівлю; to revive trade поновлювати/поновити торгівлю; to set up in trade відкривати/відкрити торговельне підприємство; trade act закон про торгівлю; trade advertising рекламування у комерційних виданнях; trade agreement торговельна угода; trade allowance знижка, запропонована роздрібним торговцем; trade and industry торгівля і промисловість; trade arbitration залагодження трудових конфліктів; trade arrangement торговельна угода; trade association торговельна асоціація; trade balance торговельний баланс; trade balance deficit дефіцит торговельного балансу; trade balance equilibrium рівновага торговельного балансу; trade barometer барометр торговельної кон'юнктури; trade barrier торговельне обмеження; trade bill торговельна тратта • торговий вексель; trade boycott торговельний бойкот; trade catalogue торговий каталог; trade commission торговельна комісія; trade committee комітет з питань торгівлі; trade conditions торговельна кон'юнктура; trade connections комерційні зв'язки; trade cooperation співпраця в галузі торгівлі; trade council торговельно-промислова рада; trade credit торговельний кредит • комерційний кредит; trade custom торговий звичай; trade customer промисловий споживач; trade cycle торговельно-промисловий цикл • цикл ділової активності • економічний цикл; trade debt заборгованість за торговельними операціями; trade debtor комерційний дебітор; trade deficit дефіцит торговельного балансу; trade description опис товару; trade development board рада з розвитку торгівлі; trade directory довідкова книга про фірми • покажчик фірм; trade discount торговельна знижка; trade dispute торговельна суперечка; trade embargo ембарго на торгівлю; trade factor комерційний фактор; trade fair торговельно-промисловий ярмарок • виставка-продаж; trade figures торговельна статистика; trade financing фінансування торгівлі; trade flow торговельний потік; trade fund торговельний фонд; trade gap дефіцит торговельного балансу; trade guarantee торговельна гарантія; —in зустрічний продаж; trade in commodities торгівля товарами; trade in goods торгівля товарами; trade in manufactures торгівля промисловими товарами; trade in real property торгівля нерухомістю; trade interest відсотковий дохід від торгівлі; trade investment інвестиція у торгівлю; trade journal галузевий журнал; trade knowledge професійні знання; trade legislation торговельне законодавство; trade liability торговельне зобов'язання; trade license промислове свідоцтво • дозвіл на торгівлю; trade magazine галузевий журнал; trade name назва фірми • фірмова назва; trade negotiations торговельні переговори; trade organization галузева організація • торговельна організація • торговельно-промислова організація; trade outlook перспективи торгівлі; trade partner торговельний компаньйон • торговельний партнер; trade payment плата за товари; trade policy торговельна політика; trade policy rules правила торговельної політики; trade practice торговельна практика; trade price торговельна ціна; trade procedure спосіб торгівлі; trade promoting measures заходи стимулювання торгівлі; trade rebate торговельна знижка; trade receivables торговельна дебіторська заборгованість; trade register торговельний реєстр; trade relations торговельні відносини; trade report звіт про торговельну діяльність; trade restrictions торговельні обмеження; trade return дохід від торгівлі; trade revival жвавість торгівлі; trade sample зразок товару; trade sanctions торговельні санкції; trade secret секрет виробництва; trade sector торговельний сектор; trade statistics статистика торгівлі; trade support system система підтримки торгівлі; trade surplus активне сальдо торговельного балансу; trade talks торговельні переговори; trade tax податок на торговельну діяльність; trade through agents торгівля через посередників; trade union профспілка; trade usage торговельні звичаї; trade value продажна ціна • ринкова вартість; trade volume обсяг торгівлі • обсяг біржових операцій; trade weight питома вага торгівлі; trade with countries торгівля з країнами

1) дело, занятие, специальность

2) дело, работа, бизнес

3) торговля, коммерческая деятельность; предпринимательская деятельность

4) сделка

5) компания, предприятие

1. n

1) торговля

2) отрасль торговли; отрасль производства; отрасль промышленности

3) занятие, ремесло, профессия

4) розничная торговля

5) сделка; операция с ценными бумагами

2. v